原価基準は何ですか？会計における資産評価の基本原則とその例外

The cost principle, a basic accounting rule, requires recording assets on financial statements at their acquisition cost, or the amount paid to acquire them. This method ensures consistency and reliability when reporting a company’s assets. To objectively represent a company’s financial condition, this principle is a foundational element of U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP).

取得原価の構成要素

Acquisition cost is more than just the purchase price of an asset. It includes all incidental expenses required to acquire the asset and prepare it for its intended use. For example, when acquiring new machinery, the acquisition cost includes the machine’s price, transportation fees, installation, and any costs for test runs. These expenses are treated as necessary expenditures until the asset is ready to generate revenue.

The same applies to real estate. In addition to the purchase price, acquisition cost includes brokerage fees paid to real estate agents, title transfer costs, and land grading expenses if the property is not immediately usable. The sum of all these direct costs becomes the initial value of the asset recorded on the balance sheet.

原価基準が採用される理由

The cost principle is widely adopted in accounting for its objectivity and verifiability. An asset’s acquisition cost is calculated from third-party evidence like sales contracts, invoices, and receipts. This allows different parties to arrive at the same amount and makes it easy for an auditor to verify. This objectivity enhances the reliability of financial reporting.

A contrasting standard is fair value, which reflects an asset’s current market value. Fair value can fluctuate based on the timing of the valuation and the appraiser, leaving room for subjective judgment. For example, the fair value of real estate constantly changes with market conditions. The cost principle avoids such fluctuations and subjectivity by providing a stable figure based on a verifiable transaction.

財務諸表への適用と減価償却

The cost principle is applied directly to the balance sheet. Fixed assets such as land, buildings, and machinery are recorded as assets based on their acquisition cost. This recorded amount does not change unless the asset is sold or an impairment loss is recognized.

For assets like buildings and machinery that decrease in value from use, an accounting procedure called depreciation is applied. This is the process of systematically allocating the asset’s acquisition cost as an expense over its estimated useful life. For example, a machine purchased for $50,000 with a five-year useful life would be expensed at $10,000 per year. Depreciation does not reflect changes in an asset’s fair value, but is a procedure for allocating its original cost. As a result, the asset’s book value on the balance sheet (acquisition cost minus accumulated depreciation) does not necessarily match its current market value.

原価基準の例外

While the cost principle is fundamental, several exceptions exist to more accurately reflect an asset’s condition. One is impairment, which is an accounting treatment to write down an asset’s book value to its recoverable amount. This occurs when its future profitability has significantly declined and the investment is no longer expected to be recovered. For example, machinery that has become obsolete may be subject to impairment.

Another exception is fair value accounting, which applies to certain financial instruments. Marketable securities like stocks and bonds held for trading are valued at their fair value at the end of the period. This provides more timely information, as the value of these assets fluctuates frequently and can significantly impact a company’s financial position.